Pinyin
From Wikipedia Mirror
Template:Otheruses Template:Chinese Template:RCL Template:IPA notice Pinyin (Simplified / Traditional Chinese:拼音), or more formally Hanyu Pinyin (汉语拼音 / 漢語拼音), is currently the most commonly used romanization system for Standard Mandarin. Hanyu (汉语 / 漢語) means the Chinese language, and pinyin (拼音) means "phonetics", or more literally, "spelling sound" or "spelled sound".[1] The system is now used in mainland China (and Hong Kong, Macau, and parts of Taiwan) to teach Mandarin Chinese to schoolchildren[1] and internationally to teach Mandarin as a second language. It is also often used to spell Chinese names in foreign publications and can be used to enter Chinese characters (hanzi) on computers and cellphones.
The romanization system was developed by a government committee in the People's Republic of China (PRC), and approved by the Chinese government on February 11, 1958.[1] The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as the international standard in 1982,[1] and since then it has been adopted by many other organizations. This romanization system also became the national standard in Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) on January 1, 2009.[1][1]
History
In 1954, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (PRC) created a Committee for the Reform of the Chinese Written Language. This committee developed Hanyu pinyin based upon several preexisting systems: (Gwoyeu Romatzyh of 1928, Latinxua Sin Wenz of 1931, and the diacritic markings from zhuyin).[1] The main force behind pinyin was Zhou Youguang.[1] Zhou was working in a New York bank when he decided to return to China to help rebuild the country after establishmnent of the PRC in 1949. He became an economics professor in Shanghai and was assigned to help the development of a new romanization system.
A first draft was published on February 12, 1956. The first edition of Hanyu pinyin was approved and adopted at the Fifth Session of the 1st National People's Congress on February 11, 1958. It was then introduced to primary schools as a way to teach Standard Mandarin pronunciation and used to improve the literacy rate among adults. In 2001, the Chinese Government issued the National Common Language Law, providing a legal basis for applying pinyin.[1]
Usage
Pinyin superseded older romanization systems such as Wade-Giles (1859; modified 1892) and Chinese Postal Map Romanization, and replaced zhuyin as the method of Chinese phonetic instruction in mainland China. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted pinyin as the standard romanization for modern Chinese in 1982 (ISO 7098:1982, superseded by ISO 7098:1991); the United Nations followed suit in 1986.[1] It has also been accepted by the government of Singapore, the United States' Library of Congress, the American Library Association, and many other international institutions.[1]
The spelling of Chinese geographical or personal names in pinyin has become the most common way to transcribe them in English. Pinyin has also become a useful tool for entering Chinese language text into computers.
Chinese families who speak Mandarin as a mother tongue use pinyin to help children associate characters with spoken words which they already know. Chinese families who speak some other language as their mother tongue use the system to teach children Mandarin pronunciation when they learn vocabulary in elementary school.[1][1]
Since 1958, Pinyin has been actively used in adult education as well, making it easier for formerly illiterate people to continue with self-study after a short period of Pinyin literacy instruction.[1]
Pinyin has become a tool for many foreigners to learn the Mandarin pronunciation, and is used to explain the grammar and spoken Mandarin together with hanzi. Books containing both Chinese characters and pinyin are often used by foreign learners of Chinese; pinyin's role in teaching pronunciation to foreigners and children is similar in some respects to furigana-based books (with hiragana letters written above or next to kanji) in Japanese or fully vocalised texts in Arabic ("vocalised Arabic").
The tone-marking diacritics are commonly omitted in popular news stories and even in scholarly works. An unfortunate effect of this is the ambiguity that results about which Chinese characters are being represented.
Overview
The correspondence between Roman letter and sound in the system is sometimes idiosyncratic, though not necessarily more so than the way the Roman alphabet is employed in other languages. For example, the aspiration distinction between b, d, g and p, t, k is similar to that of English, but not to that of French. Z and c also have that distinction; however, they are pronounced as [ts], as in languages such as German, Italian, and Polish, which do not have that distinction. From s, z, c come the digraphs sh, zh, ch by analogy with English sh, ch. Although this introduces the novel combination zh, it is internally consistent in how the two series are related, and reminds the trained reader that many Chinese pronounce sh, zh, ch as s, z, c. In the x, j, q series, the Pinyin use of x is similar to its use in Portuguese, Galician, Catalan, Basque and Maltese; and the Pinyin q is akin to its value in Albanian, both Pinyin and Albanian pronunciations may sound similar to the ch to the untrained ear. Pinyin vowels are pronounced in a similar way to vowels in Romance languages. More information on the pronunciation of all pinyin letters in terms of English approximations is given further below.
The pronunciation and spelling of Chinese words are generally given in terms of initials and finals, which represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language, rather than letter by letter. Initials are initial consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel), the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).
Initials and finals
Unlike in European languages, initials (Template:Zh) and finals (Template:Zh)—and not consonants and vowels—are the fundamental elements in pinyin (and most other phonetic systems used to describe the Han language). Nearly each Chinese syllable can be spelled with exactly one initial followed by one final, except in the special syllable er and when a trailing -r is considered part of a syllable (see below). The latter case, though a common practice in some sub-dialects, is rarely used in official publications.[1]
Even though most initials contain a consonant, finals are not simple vowels, especially in compound finals (Template:Zh), i.e., when one "final" is placed in front of another one. For example, [i] and [u] are pronounced with such tight openings that some native Chinese speakers (especially when singing or on stage) pronounce yī (Template:Zh, clothes, officially pronounced Template:IPA) as Template:IPA, wéi (Template:Zh, to enclose, officially as Template:IPA) as Template:IPA or Template:IPA. The concepts of consonant and vowel are not incorporated in pinyin or its predecessors; there is no list of consonants or vowels.
Initials
In each cell below, the first line indicates the IPA, the second indicates pinyin.
1 Template:IPA may phonetically be Template:IPA (a voiced retroflex fricative). This pronunciation varies among different speakers, and is not two different phonemes.
2 the letters "w" and "y" are not included in the table of initials in the official pinyin system. They are an orthographic convention for the medials "i", "u" and "ü" when no initial is present. When "i", "u" or "ü" are finals and no initial is present, they are spelled "yi", "wu", and "yu", respectively.
3 "y" is pronounced Template:IPA before "u".
Conventional order (excluding w and y), derived from the zhuyin system, is:
| b p m f | d t n l | g k h | j q x | zh ch sh r | z c s |
Finals
In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r, which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible finals.1
The only syllable-final consonants in standard Mandarin are -n and -ng, and -r, which is attached as a grammatical suffix. Chinese syllables ending with any other consonant is either from a non-Mandarin language (southern Chinese languages such as Cantonese, or minority languages of China), or it indicates the use of a non-pinyin Romanization system (where final consonants may be used to indicate tones).
| Final | Medial | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nucleus | Coda | Ø | Template:IPA | Template:IPA | Template:IPA |
| Template:IPA | Ø | Template:IPA a -a | Template:IPA ya -ia | Template:IPA wa -ua | |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA ai -ai | Template:IPA wai -uai | |||
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA ao -ao | Template:IPA yao -iao | |||
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA an -an | Template:IPA yan -ian | Template:IPA wan -uan | Template:IPA yuan -üan 2 | |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA ang -ang | Template:IPA yang -iang | Template:IPA wang -uang | ||
| Template:IPA | Ø | Template:IPA e -e | Template:IPA ye -ie | Template:IPA wo -uo/-o 3 | Template:IPA yue -üe 2 |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA ei -ei | Template:IPA wei -ui | |||
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA ou -ou | Template:IPA you -iu | |||
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA en -en | Template:IPA yin -in | Template:IPA wen -un | Template:IPA yun -ün 2 | |
| Template:IPA | Template:IPA eng -eng | Template:IPA ying -ing | Template:IPA 4 weng -ong | Template:IPA yong -iong | |
| Ø | Template:IPA -i | Template:IPA yi -i | Template:IPA wu -u | Template:IPA yu -ü 2 | |
1 Template:IPA (而, 二, etc.) is written er. For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does not use special orthography; one simply appends -r to the final that it is added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place along the way. For information on sound changes related to final -r, please see Standard Mandarin.
2 "ü" is written as "u" after j, q, x, or y.
3 "uo" is written as "o" after b, p, m, or f.
4 It is pronounced Template:IPA when it follows an initial, and pinyin reflects this difference.
Technically, i, u, ü without a following vowel are finals, not medials, and therefore take the tone marks, but they are more concisely displayed as above. In addition, ê Template:IPA (欸, 誒) and syllabic nasals m (呒, 呣), n (嗯, 唔), ng (嗯, 𠮾) are used as interjections.
Rules given in terms of English pronunciation
All rules given here in terms of English pronunciation are approximate, as several of these sounds do not correspond directly to sounds in English.
Pronunciation of initials
| Pinyin | IPA | Explanation |
|---|---|---|
| b | Template:IPA | unaspirated p, as in spit |
| p | Template:IPA | strongly aspirated p, as in pit |
| m | Template:IPA | as in English mummy |
| f | Template:IPA | as in English fun |
| d | Template:IPA | unaspirated t, as in stop |
| t | Template:IPA | strongly aspirated t, as in top |
| n | Template:IPA | as in English nit |
| l | Template:IPA | as in English love |
| g | Template:IPA | unaspirated k, as in skill |
| k | Template:IPA | strongly aspirated k, as in kill |
| h | Template:IPA | like the English h if followed by "a"; otherwise it is pronounced more roughly (like the Scots ch or Russian х (Cyrillic "kha")). |
| j | Template:IPA | like q, but unaspirated. Not the j in jingle. Not the s in Asia, despite the common English pronunciation of "Beijing". The sequence "ji" is like Japanese じ ji. |
| q | Template:IPA | like cheek, with the lips spread wide enough when you say ee. Strongly aspirated. |
| x | Template:Audio-IPA | like she, with the lips spread as when you say ee. The sequence "xi" is like Japanese し shi. |
| zh | Template:IPA | j or ch in English with no aspiration (a sound between joke and church, tongue tip curled more upwards); very similar to merger in American English but not voiced |
| ch | Template:IPA | as in chin, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to nurture in American English, but strongly aspirated |
| sh | Template:IPA | as in shoe, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to marsh in American English |
| r | Template:IPA | Similar to the English z in azure, but with the tongue curled upwards, like a cross between English "r" and French "j". In Cyrillised Chinese the sound is rendered with the letter "ж". |
| z | Template:IPA | unaspirated c (something between suds and cats) |
| c | Template:IPA | like ts in bats, but strongly aspirated |
| s | Template:IPA | as in sun |
| w | Template:IPA | as in water.* |
| y | Template:IPA | as in yes.* |
| v | Template:IPA | new syllable* |
- * Note on w, y, and the apostrophe
Y and w are equivalent to the semivowel medials i, u, and ü (see below). They are spelled differently when there is no initial consonant in order to mark a new syllable: fanguan is fan-guan, while fangwan is fang-wan (and equivalent to *fang-uan). With this convention, an apostrophe only needs to be used to mark an initial a, e, or o: Xi'an (two syllables: Template:IPA) vs. xian (one syllable: Template:IPA). In addition, y and w are added to fully vocalic i, u, and ü when these occur without an initial consonant, so that they are written yi, wu, and yu. Some Mandarin speakers do pronounce a Template:IPA or Template:IPA sound at the beginning of such words—that is, yi Template:IPA or Template:IPA, wu Template:IPA or Template:IPA, yu Template:IPA or Template:IPA,—so this is an intuitive convention. See below for a few finals which are abbreviated after a consonant plus w/u or y/i medial: wen → C+un, wei → C+ui, weng → C+ong, and you → C+iu.
Pronunciation of finals
The following is an exhaustive list of all finals in Standard Mandarin. Those ending with a final -r are listed at the end.
To find a given final:
- Remove the initial consonant. Zh, ch, and sh count as initial consonants.
- Change initial w to u and initial y to i. For weng, wei, you, look under ong, ui, iu.
- For u after j, q, x, or y, look under ü.
| Pinyin | IPA | Form with zero initial | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| -i | Template:IPA, Template:IPA | n/a | -i is a buzzed continuation of the consonant following z-, c-, s-, zh-, ch-, sh- or r-. (In all other words, -i has the sound of bee; this is listed below.) |
| a | Template:IPA | a | as in "father" |
| o | Template:IPA | o | Approximately as in "office" in British accent; the lips are much more rounded. |
| e | Template:IPA, Template:IPA | e | a back, unrounded vowel, which can be formed by first pronouncing a plain continental "o" (AuE and NZE law) and then spreading the lips without changing the position of the tongue. That same sound is also similar to English "duh", but not as open. Many unstressed syllables in Chinese use the schwa (idea), and this is also written as e. |
| ê | Template:IPA | (n/a) | as in "bet". Only used in certain interjections. |
| ai | Template:IPA | ai | like English "eye", but a bit lighter |
| ei | Template:IPA | ei | as in "hey" |
| ao | Template:IPA | ao | approximately as in "cow"; the a is much more audible than the o |
| ou | Template:IPA | ou | as in "so" |
| an | Template:IPA | an | starts with plain continental "a" (AuE and NZE bud) and ends with "n" |
| en | Template:IPA | en | as in "taken" |
| ang | Template:IPA | ang | as in German Angst, including the English loan word angst (starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in American English) |
| eng | Template:IPA | eng | like e above but with ng added to it at the back |
| ong | Template:IPA | ong | starts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing |
| er | Template:IPA | er | as in "teacher" in American English |
| Finals beginning with i- (y-) | |||
| i | Template:IPA | yi | like English bee. |
| ia | Template:IPA | ya | as i + a; like English "yard" |
| io | Template:IPA | yo | as i + plain continental "o". Only used in certain interjections. |
| ie | Template:IPA | ye | as i + ê; but is very short; e (pronounced like ê) is pronounced longer and carries the main stress (similar to the initial sound ye in yet) |
| iao | Template:IPA | yao | as i + ao |
| iu | Template:IPA | you | as i + ou |
| ian | Template:IPA | yan | as i + ê + n; like English yen |
| in | Template:IPA | yin | as i + n |
| iang | Template:IPA | yang | as i + ang |
| ing | Template:IPA | ying | as i but with ng added to it at the back |
| iong | Template:IPA | yong | as yu + ong |
| Finals beginning with u- (w-) | |||
| u | Template:IPA | wu | like English "oo"; pronounced as ü Template:IPA after j, q, x and y |
| ua | Template:IPA | wa | as u + a |
| uo | Template:IPA | wo | as u + o; the o is pronounced shorter and lighter than in the o final |
| uai | Template:IPA | wai | as u + ai like as in why |
| ui | Template:IPA | wei | as u + ei; here, the i is pronounced like ei |
| uan | Template:IPA | wan | as u + an; pronounced as üan Template:IPA after j, q, x and y |
| un | Template:IPA | wen | as u + en; like the on in the English won; pronounced as ün Template:IPA after j, q, x and y |
| uang | Template:IPA | wang | as u + ang; like the ang in English angst or anger |
| ueng | Template:IPA | weng | as u + eng |
| Finals beginning with ü- (yu-) | |||
| u, ü | Template:IPA | yu | as in German "üben" or French "lune" (To get this sound, say "ee" with rounded lips) |
| ue, üe | Template:IPA | yue | as ü + ê; the ü is short and light |
| uan | Template:IPA | yuan | as ü + ê+ n; |
| un, ün | Template:IPA | yun | as ü + n; |
Orthography
Letters
Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects, such as the following:
- Syllables starting with u are written as w in place of u (e.g. ueng is written as weng). Standalone u is written as wu.
- Syllables starting with i are written as y in place of i (e.g. iou is written as you). Standalone i is written as yi.
- Syllables starting with ü are written as yu in place of ü (e.g. üe is written as yue).
- ü is written as u when there is no ambiguity (such as ju, qu, and xu), but written as ü when there are corresponding u syllables (such as lü and nü). In such situations where there are corresponding u syllables, it is often replaced with v on a computer, making it easier to type on a standard keyboard.
- When preceded by a consonant, iou, uei, and uen are simplified as iu, ui, and un (which do not represent the actual pronunciation).
- As in zhuyin, what are actually pronounced as buo, puo, muo, and fuo are given a separate representation: bo, po, mo, and fo.
- The apostrophe (') is often used before a, o, and e to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise, as in Xi'an, which consists of the two syllables xi ("西") and an ("安") as opposed to xian for such words as "先". (This ambiguity does not occur when tone marks are used: The two tone marks in "Xīān" unambiguously show that the word consists of two syllables. However, even with tone marks, the city is usually spelled with an apostrophe as "Xī'ān".)
- Eh alone is written as ê; elsewhere as e. Schwa is always written as e.
- zh, ch, and sh can be abbreviated as ẑ, ĉ, and ŝ (z, c, s with a circumflex). However, the shorthands are rarely used due to difficulty of entering them on computers.
- ng has the uncommon shorthand of ŋ.
- The letter v is unused （except in spelling foreign languages, languages of minority nationalities, and some dialects), despite a conscious effort to distribute letters more evenly than in Western languages. However, sometimes, for ease of typing into a computer, the v is used to replace a ü.
Most of the above are used to avoid ambiguity when writing words of more than one syllable in pinyin. For example uenian is written as wenyan because it is not clear which syllables make up uenian; uen-ian, uen-i-an and u-en-i-an are all possible combinations whereas wenyan is unambiguous because we, nya, etc. do not exist in pinyin. See the pinyin table article for a summary of possible pinyin syllables (not including tones).
Capitalization and word formation
Although Chinese characters represent single syllables, Mandarin Chinese is a polysyllabic language. Spacing in pinyin is based on whole words, not single syllables. However, there are often ambiguities in partitioning a word. Orthographic rules were put into effect in 1988 by the National Educational Commission (国家教育委员会, pinyin: Guójiā Jiàoyù Wěiyuánhuì ) and the National Language Commission (国家语言文字工作委员会, pinyin: Guójiā Yǔyán Wénzì Gōngzuò Wěiyuánhuì).
- General
- Single meaning: Words with a single meaning, which are usually set up of two characters (sometimes one, seldom three), are written together and not capitalized: rén (Template:Zh, person); péngyou (Template:Zh, friend), qiǎokèlì (Template:Zh, chocolate)
- Combined meaning (2 characters): Same goes for words combined of two words to one meaning: hǎifēng (Template:Zh, sea breeze); wèndá (Template:Zh, Q&A), quánguó (Template:Zh, 'pan-national')
- Combined meaning (4 or more characters): Words with four or more characters having one meaning are split up with their original meaning if possible: wúfèng gāngguǎn (Template:Zh, seamless steel-tube); huánjìng bǎohù guīhuà (Template:Zh, environmental protection planning)
- Duplicated words
- AA: Duplicated characters (AA) are written together: rénrén (Template:Zh, everybody), kànkàn (Template:Zh, to have a look), niánnián (Template:Zh, every year)
- ABAB: two characters duplicated (ABAB) are written separated: yánjiū yánjiū (Template:Zh, to study, to research), xuěbái xuěbái (Template:Zh, snow-white)
- AABB: A hyphen is used with the schema AABB: láilái-wǎngwǎng (Template:Zh, go back and forth), qiānqiān-wànwàn (Template:Zh, numerous)
- Nouns and names (míngcí): Nouns are written in one: zhuōzi (Template:Zh, table), mùtou (Template:Zh, wood)
- Even if accompanied by a prefix and suffix: fùbùzhǎng (Template:Zh, vice minister), chéngwùyuán (Template:Zh, conductor), háizimen (Template:Zh, children)
- Words of position are separated: mén wài (outdoor), hé li (in the river), huǒchē shàngmian (on the train), Huáng Hé yǐnán (south of the Yellow River)
- Exceptions are words traditionally connected: tiānshang (in the sky), dìxia (on the ground), kōngzhōng (in the air), hǎiwài (overseas)
- Surnames are separated from the given name: Lǐ Huá, Zhāng Sān. If the given name consists of two syllables, it should be written as one: Wáng Jiàngguó.
- Titles following the name are separated and are not capitalized: Wáng bùzhǎng (minister Wang), Lǐ xiānsheng (Mr. Li), Tián zhǔrèn (director Tian), Zhào tóngzhì (comrade Zhao).
- The forms of addressing people with Lǎo, Xiǎo, Dà and A are capitalized: Xiǎo Liú ([young] Ms./Mr. Liu), Dà Lǐ ([great;elder] Mr. Li), A Sān (Ah San), Lǎo Qián ([senior] Mr. Qian), Lǎo Wú ([senior] Mr. Wu)
- Exceptions are: Kǒngzǐ (Master Confucius), Bāogōng (Judge Bao), Xīshī (a historical person), Mèngchángjūn (a historical person)
- Geographical names of China: Běijīng Shì (City of Beijing), Héběi Shěng (Province of Hebei), Yālù Jiāng (Yalu River), Tài Shān (Mt. Taishan), Dòngtíng Hú (Lake Donting), Táiwān Hǎixiá (Taiwan strait)
- Non-Chinese names translated back from Chinese will be written by their original writing: Marx, Einstein, London, Tokyo
- Verbs (dòngcí): Verbs and their suffixes (-zhe, -le and -guo) are written as one: kànzhe/kànle/kànguo (to see/saw/seen), jìngxíngzhe (to implement). Le as it appears in the end of a sentence is separated though: Huǒchē dào le (The train [has] arrived).
- Verbs and their objects are separated: kàn xìn (read a letter), chī yú (eat fish), kāi wánxiào (to be kidding).
- If verbs and their complements are each monosyllabic, they are written together, if not, separated: gǎohuài ("to make broken"), dǎsǐ (hit to death), huàwéi ("to become damp"), zhěnglǐ hǎo (to straighten out), gǎixiě wéi (rewrite a screenplay)
- Adjectives (xíngróngcí): A monosyllabic adjective and its reduplication are written as one: mēngmēngliàng (dim), liàngtāngtāng (shining bright)
- Complements of size or degree (as xiē, yīxiē, diǎnr, yīdiǎnr) are written separated: dà xiē (a little bigger), kuài yīdiānr (a bit faster)
- Pronouns (dàicí)
- The plural suffix -men directly follows up: wǒmen (we), tāmen (they)
- The demonstrative pronoun zhè (this), nà (that) and the question pronoun nǎ (which) are separated: zhè rén (this person), nà cì huìyì (that meeting), nǎ zhāng bàozhǐ (which newspaper)
- Exceptions are: nàli (there), zhèbian (over here), zhège (this piece), zhème (so), zhèmeyàng (that way)... and similar ones.
- Numerals and measure words (shùcí hé liàngcí)
- Words like gè/měi (every, each), mǒu (any), běn (that), gāi (that), wǒ (mine, our), are separated from the measure words following them: gè guó (every nation), gè gè (everyone), měi nián (every year), mǒu gōngchǎng (a certain factory), wǒ xiào (our school).
Tones
The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the four tones of Mandarin. The diacritic is placed over the letter that represents the syllable nucleus, unless that letter is missing (see below). Many books printed in China use a mix of fonts, with vowels and tone marks rendered in a different font than the surrounding text, tending to give such pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style, most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe that pinyin's rules call for this practice and also for the use of a Latin alpha ("Template:Unicode") rather than the standard style of the letter ("Template:Unicode") found in most fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such practice.
- The first tone (Flat or High Level Tone) is represented by a macron (ˉ) added to the pinyin vowel:
- The second tone (Rising or High-Rising Tone) is denoted by an acute accent (ˊ):
- The third tone (Falling-Rising or Low Tone) is marked by a caron/háček (ˇ). It is not the rounded breve (˘), though a breve is sometimes substituted due to font limitations.
- The fourth tone (Falling or High-Falling Tone) is represented by a grave accent (ˋ):
- The fifth tone (Neutral Tone) is represented by a normal vowel without any accent mark:
- (In some cases, this is also written with a dot before the syllable; for example, ·ma.)Template:Citation needed
These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarin textbooks or in foreign learning texts, but they are essential for correct pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, as exemplified by the following classic example of five characters whose pronunciations differ only in their tones:
|
Traditional characters: Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Simplified characters: Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big Template:Ruby-big |
The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "scold" and a question particle, respectively.
Numerals in place of tone marks
Before the advent of computers, many typewriter fonts did not contain vowels with macron or caron diacritics. Tones were thus represented by placing a tone number at the end of individual syllables. For example, tóng is written tong2. The number used for each tone is as the order listed above, except the neutral tone, which is either not numbered, or given the number 0 or 5, e.g. ma5 for 吗/嗎, an interrogative marker.
| Tone | Tone Mark | Number added to end of syllable in place of tone mark | Example using tone mark | Example using number | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First | macron ( ˉ ) | 1 | mā | ma1 | Template:IPA |
| Second | acute accent ( ˊ ) | 2 | má | ma2 | Template:IPA |
| Third | caron ( ˇ ) | 3 | mǎ | ma3 | Template:IPA |
| Fourth | grave accent ( ˋ ) | 4 | mà | ma4 | Template:IPA |
| "Neutral" | No mark or dot before syllable (·) | no number 5 0 | ma ·ma | ma ma5 ma0 | Template:IPA |
Rules for placing the tone mark
Pinyin tone marks appear primarily above the nucleus of the syllable, for example as in kuài, where k is the initial, u the medial, a the nucleus, and i the coda. The exception is syllabic nasals like m, where the nucleus of the syllable is a consonant, the diacritic will be carried by a vowel.
When the nucleus is /ə/ (written e or o), and there is both a medial and a coda, the nucleus may be dropped from writing. When the coda is a consonant n or ng, the only vowel left is the medial i, u, or ü, and so this takes the diacritic. However, when the coda is a vowel, it is the coda rather than the medial which takes the diacritic. This occurs with syllables ending in -ui, from wei, and in -iu, from you (wèi → -uì; yòu → -iù). That is, finals have priority, as long as they are vowels: if not, the medial takes the diacritic.
An algorithm to find the correct vowel letter (when there is more than one) is as follows:[1]
- If there is an "a" or an "e", it will take the tone mark.
- If there is an "ou", then the "o" takes the tone mark.
- Otherwise, the second vowel takes the tone mark.
Worded differently,
- If there is an "a", "e", or "o", it will take the tone mark; in the case of "ao", the mark goes on the "a".
- Otherwise, the vowels are "-iu" or "-ui", in which case the second vowel takes the tone mark.
If the tone is written over an i, the dot above the i is omitted, as in yī.
The character "ü"
An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the initials l and n in order to represent the sound [y]. This is necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel in lü (e.g. 驴/驢 donkey) from the back high rounded vowel in lu (e.g. 炉/爐 oven). Tonal markers are added on top of the trema, as in lǘ.
However, the ü is not used in other contexts where it represents a front high rounded vowel, namely after the letters j, q, x and y. For example, the sound of the word 鱼/魚 (fish) is transcribed in pinyin simply as yú, not as yǘ. This practice is opposed to Wade-Giles, which always uses ü, and Tongyong pinyin, which always uses yu. Whereas Wade-Giles needs to use the trema to distinguish between chü (pinyin ju) and chu (pinyin zhu), this ambiguity cannot arise with pinyin, so the more convenient form ju is used instead of jü. Genuine ambiguities only happen with nu/nü and lu/lü, which are then distinguished by a trema (diacritic).
Many fonts or output methods do not support a trema for ü or cannot place tone marks on top of ü. Likewise, using ü in input methods is difficult because it is not present as a simple key on many keyboard layouts. For these reasons v is sometimes used instead by convention. For example, it is common for cellphones to use v instead of ü. Additionally, some stores in China use v instead of ü in the transliteration of their names. Occasionally, uu (double u), u: (u followed by a colon) or U (capital u) is used in its place.
Although nüe written as nue, and lüe written as lue are not ambiguous, nue or lue are not correct according the rules; nüe and lüe should be used instead. However, some Chinese input methods (e.g. Microsoft Pinyin IME) support both nve/lve (typing v for ü) and nue/lue.
Comparison chart
Pinyin in Taiwan
Taiwan (Republic of China) adopted Tongyong pinyin, a modification of Hanyu pinyin, as the official romanization system on the national level between October 2002 and January 2009, when it switched to Hanyu pinyin. The romanization system in use became a political issue, much of it centered on issues of national identity, with proponents of Chinese reunification favoring Hanyu pinyin, the official romanization system used in the People's Republic of China as well as internationally, and proponents of Taiwanese independence favoring the use of the locally developed Tongyong pinyin.Template:Citation needed
The adoption of Tongyong pinyin was an administrative order that could be overruled by local governments. Some localities with governments controlled by the Kuomintang (KMT), most notably Taipei, Hsinchu, and Kinmen County, overrode the order and converted to Hanyu pinyin before the January 1, 2009 national-level switch,[1][1] though with a slightly different capitalization convention than mainland China. Most areas of Taiwan adopted Tongyong Pinyin, consistent with the national policy. As a result, the use of romanization on signage in Taiwan has been inconsistent. Many signs display Tongyong pinyin but some display Hanyu pinyin, and others still display old Wade-Giles or MPS2 signage. This has led to odd situations: for instance, in Taipei there were inconsistent romanizations shown in freeway directions: freeway signs, under the control of the central government, used Tongyong, while surface street signs, under the control of the city government, used, and still use, Hanyu Pinyin.Template:Citation needed
The adoption of the New Phonetic System (Hanyu Pinyin), intended by the government to be a truly national standard in Taiwan, is viewed as an international system. Still, some place names in Taiwan will retain older spellings because of their familiarity. Personal names on passports will honor the choices of Taiwanese citizens, who often prefer the Wade-Giles romanisation of their personal names. Transition to New Phonetic System is necessarily gradual, as questions remain about the ability of the national government to enforce the standard island-wide. [1]
Primary education in Taiwan continues to teach pronunciation using zhuyin (MPS or Mandarin Phonetic Symbols).
Other languages
Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variants of Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of romanizations devised by the government of Guangdong province for Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen dialect), and Hainanese. All of these are designed to use Latin letters in a similar way to pinyin.
In addition, in accordance to the Regulation of Phonetic Transcription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names in Minority Nationality Languages (少数民族语地名汉语拼音字母音译转写法) promulgated in 1976, place names in non-Chinese languages like Mongol, Uyghur, and Tibetan are also officially transcribed using pinyin. The pinyin letters (26 Roman letters, ü, ê) are used to approximate the non-Chinese language in question as closely as possible. This results in spellings that are different from both the customary spelling of the place name, and the pinyin spelling of the name in Chinese:
| Customary | Official (pinyin for local name) | Chinese name | Pinyin for Chinese name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shigatse | Xigazê | 日喀则 | Rìkāzé |
| Urumchi | Ürümqi | 乌鲁木齐 | Wūlǔmùqí |
| Lhasa | Lhasa | 拉萨 | Lāsà |
| Golmud | Golmud | 格尔木 | Gé'ěrmù |
- See also: Tibetan pinyin
Comparison with other orthographies
Pinyin is now used by foreign students learning Chinese as a second language.
Pinyin assigns some Roman letters phonological values which are quite different from that of most languages.
Pinyin is purely a representation of the sounds of Mandarin, therefore it lacks the semantic cues that Chinese characters can provide. It is also unsuitable for transcribing some Chinese spoken languages other than Mandarin.
Simple computer systems, able only to display only 7-bit ASCII text (essentially the 26 Latin letters, 10 digits and punctuation marks), long provided a convincing argument in favor of pinyin over hanzi. Today, however, most computer systems are able to display characters from Chinese and many other writing systems as well, and have them entered with a Latin keyboard using an input method editor. Alternatively, some PDAs, tablet PCs and digitizing tablets allow users to input characters directly by writing with a stylus.
Further reading
- Gao, J. K. (2005). Pinyin shorthand: a bilingual handbook = [Pinyin su ji fa]. Dallas, TX: Jack Sun. ISBN 1599712512
- Kimball, R. L. (1988). Quick reference Chinese: a practical guide to Mandarin for beginners and travelers in English, Pinyin romanization, and Chinese characters. San Francisco, CA: China Books & Periodicals. ISBN 0835120368
- Wu, C.-j. (1979). The Pinyin Chinese-English dictionary. Hong Kong: Commercial Press. ISBN 0471275573
See also
- Chinese Postal Map Romanization
- Combining diacritic marks
- Legge romanization
- List of ISO transliterations
- Pinyin table
- Tibetan pinyin
- Tongyong pinyin
- Pinyin method
- Erhua (儿化)
References
- Yin Binyong 尹斌庸 and Mary Felley (1990). Chinese Romanization. Pronunciation and Orthography (Hanyu pinyin he zhengcifa 汉语拼音和正词法). Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 7-80052-148-6 / ISBN 0-8351-1930-0.
Notes
External links
- Basic Rules of Hanyu Pinyin Orthography by Zhou Yougang
- Chinese text annotation
- Mandarin sound chart
- Pinyin Listening Quiz for 4 Tones
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